Monitoring and Mapping of Batura Glacier in Northern Pakistan's Gilgit Baltistan Region: A Geospatial Approach
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.23918/eajse.v11i1p9Keywords:
Geospatial Technology , Batura, Snow Covers Area, NDSI, Landsat, Himalayan RegionAbstract
Pakistan is home to some of the world's richest natural resources, including glaciers, which are among its most vital assets. To ensure their sustainable use, these resources require effective mapping, monitoring, and strategic planning. Modern geospatial technologies, including remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS), offer efficient and convenient methods for monitoring and mapping key natural resources. The Batura Glacier, one of the major glaciers in Pakistan's Himalayan region, plays a significant role in the region's hydrology. This study used remote sensing and GIS-based techniques to assess changes in the Batura Glacier's area following ice melt and to analyze the spatiotemporal dynamics of its snow cover area (SCA) over the past 25 years (1998–2023) during the winter season. By applying the Normalized Difference Snow Index (NDSI) to Landsat satellite imagery from December 1998 to November 2023, the study revealed that the lowest SCA was recorded in December 2008, covering 39.83%, while the highest SCA, 49.15%, was observed in November 2013. The overall changes in SCA from 1998 to 2023 is, 4.90%. In conclusion, the use of geospatial technology proved highly effective in assessing and monitoring the glaciated areas of the Batura Glacier. It can be applied to real-time monitoring efforts in similar regions.
References
[1] Bajracharya SR, Maharjan SB, Shrestha F, Guo W, Liu S, Immerzeel W, Shrestha B. The glaciers of the Hindu Kush Himalayas: current status and observed changes from the 1980s to 2010. International Journal of Water Resources Development. 2015 3;31(2):161-73. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2015.1005731
[2] Gul J, Muhammad S, Liu SY, Ullah S, Ahmad S, Hayat H, Tahir AA. Spatio-temporal changes in the six major glaciers of the Chitral River basin (Hindukush Region of Pakistan) between 2001 and 2018. Journal of Mountain Science. 2020 ;17(3):572-87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-019-5728-9
[3] Gao H, Zou X, Wu J, Zhang Y, Deng X, Hussain S, Wazir MA, Zhu G. Post-20th century near-steady state of Batura Glacier: observational evidence of Karakoram Anomaly. Scientific reports. 2020 22;10(1):987.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-57660-0
[4] Immerzeel WW. Climate change will affect the Asian water towers (Science (1382)). Science. 2010 30;329(5991).https://doi 10.1126/science.1183188
[5] Gärtner-Roer I, Naegeli K, Huss M, Knecht T, Machguth H, Zemp M. A database of worldwide glacier thickness observations. Global and Planetary Change. 2014 1; 122:330-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.09.003
[6] Khan A, Naz BS, Bowling LC. Separating snow, clean and debris covered ice in the Upper Indus Basin, Hindukush-Karakoram-Himalayas, using Landsat images between 1998 and 2002. Journal of Hydrology. 2015 1; 521:46-64.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.11.048
[7] Frey H, Machguth H, Huss M, Huggel C, Bajracharya S, Bolch T, Kulkarni A, Linsbauer A, Salzmann N, Stoffel M. Estimating the volume of glaciers in the Himalayan–Karakoram region using different methods. The Cryosphere. 2014 12;8(6):2313-33.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-2313-2014
[8] Zemp M, Huss M, Thibert E, Eckert N, McNabb R, Huber J, Barandun M, Machguth H, Nussbaumer SU, Gärtner-Roer I, Thomson L. Global glacier mass changes and their contributions to sea-level rise from 1961 to 2016. Nature. 2019 18;568(7752):382-6.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1071-0
[9] Nie Y, Pritchard HD, Liu Q, Hennig T, Wang W, Wang X, Liu S, Nepal S, Samyn D, Hewitt K, Chen X. Glacial change and hydrological implications in the Himalaya and Karakoram. Nature reviews earth & environment. 2021 ;2(2):91-106. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-00124- w
[10] Gardelle J, Berthier E, Arnaud Y. Slight mass gain of Karakoram glaciers in the early twenty-first century. Nature geoscience. 2012 ;5(5):322-5. https://doi.10.1038/NGEO1450
[11] Barnett TP, Adam JC, Lettenmaier DP. Potential impacts of a warming climate on water availability in snow-dominated regions. Nature. 2005 17;438(7066):303-9. https://10.1038/nature04141
[12] Armstrong RL, Rittger K, Brodzik MJ, Racoviteanu A, Barrett AP, Khalsa SJ, Raup B, Hill AF, Khan AL, Wilson AM, Kayastha RB. Runoff from glacier ice and seasonal snow in High Asia: separating melt water sources in river flow. Regional Environmental Change. 2019 1; 19:1249-61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-1429-0
[13] Lee S, Klein AG, Over TM. A comparison of MODIS and NOHRSC snow‐cover products for simulating streamflow using the Snowmelt Runoff Model. Hydrological Processes: An International Journal. 2005 15;19(15):2951-72.https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5810
[14] Dozier J, Bair EH, Davis RE. Estimating the spatial distribution of snow water equivalent in the world's mountains. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water. 2016 ;3(3):461-74.https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1140
[15] Rittger K, Bair EH, Kahl A, Dozier J. Spatial estimates of snow water equivalent from reconstruction. Advances in water resources. 2016 1; 94:345-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2016.05.015.
[16] Armstrong RL, Rittger K, Brodzik MJ, Racoviteanu A, Barrett AP, Khalsa SJ, Raup B, Hill AF, Khan AL, Wilson AM, Kayastha RB. Runoff from glacier ice and seasonal snow in High Asia: separating melt water sources in river flow. Regional Environmental Change. 2019 1; 19:1249-61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-1429-0.
[17] Huang X, Deng J, Wang W, Feng Q, Liang T. Impact of climate and elevation on snow cover using integrated remote sensing snow products in Tibetan Plateau. Remote Sensing of Environment. 2017 1; 190:274-88.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2016.12.028
[18] De Rosnay P, Balsamo G, Albergel C, Muñoz-Sabater J, Isaksen L. Initialisation of land surface variables for numerical weather prediction. Surveys in Geophysics. 2014 May; 35:607-21. https://doi 10.1007/s10712-012-9207-x
[19] Romanov P. Global multisensor automated satellite-based snow and ice mapping system (GMASI) for cryosphere monitoring. Remote Sensing of Environment. 2017 1; 196:42-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.04.023
[20] Hall DK, Riggs GA, Foster JL, Kumar SV. Development and evaluation of a cloud-gap-filled MODIS daily snow-cover product. Remote sensing of environment. 2010 15;114(3):496-503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2009.10.007
[21] Zhang YF, Hoar TJ, Yang ZL, Anderson JL, Toure AM, Rodell M. Assimilation of MODIS snow cover through the Data Assimilation Research Testbed and the Community Land Model version 4. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 2014 27;119(12):7091-103. https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JD021329
[22] Bousbaa M, Boudhar A, Kinnard C, Elyoussfi H, Karaoui I, Eljabiri Y, Bouamri H, Chehbouni A. An accurate snow cover product for the Moroccan Atlas Mountains: Optimization of the MODIS NDSI index threshold and development of snow fraction estimation models. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. 2024 1; 129:103851. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2024.103851
[23] Agrawal A, Thayyen RJ, Dimri AP. Mass-balance modelling of Gangotri glacier. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP462.1
[24] Saad AM, Elhabbak AK, Abbas MH, Mohamed I, AbdelRahman MA, Scopa A, Bassouny MA. Can deficit irrigations be an optimum solution for increasing water productivity under arid conditions? A case study on wheat plants. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences. 2023 1;30(2):103537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2022.103537
[25] Kehrwald NM, Thompson LG, Tandong Y, Mosley‐Thompson E, Schotterer U, Alfimov V, Beer J, Eikenberg J, Davis ME. Mass loss on Himalayan glacier endangers water resources. Geophysical Research Letters. 2008 ;35(22). https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL035556.
[26] Banerjee A, Chen R, Meadows ME, Sengupta D, Pathak S, Xia Z, Mal S. Tracking 21st century climate dynamics of the Third Pole: An analysis of topo-climate impacts on snow cover in the central Himalaya using Google Earth Engine. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. 2021 1; 103:102490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2021.102490
[27] Sharma V, Mishra VD, Joshi PK. Implications of climate change on streamflow of a snow-fed river system of the Northwest Himalaya. Journal of Mountain Science. 2013 ;10(4):574-87. https://doi.10.1007/s11629-013-2667-8
[28] Sahu R, Gupta RD. Snow cover area analysis and its relation with climate variability in Chandra basin, Western Himalaya, during 2001–2017 using MODIS and ERA5 data. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2020; 192:1-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-020-08442-8
[29] Jain SK, Goswami A, Saraf AK. Role of elevation and aspect in snow distribution in Western Himalaya. Water resources management. 2009; 23:71-83. https://doi 10.1007/s11269-008-9265-5
[30] Qureshi MA, Yi C, Xu X, Li Y. Glacier status during the period 1973–2014 in the Hunza Basin, Western Karakoram. Quaternary International. 2017 15; 444:125-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.08.029
[31] Wester P, Mishra A, Mukherji A, Shrestha AB. The Hindu Kush Himalaya assessment: mountains, climate change, sustainability and people. Springer Nature; 2019. http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/22932
[32] Bajracharya SR, Shrestha B. The status of glaciers in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD); 2011. https://doi.org/10.53055/ICIMOD.551
[33] Batura Glacier Investigation Group. The Batura Glacier in the Karakoram Mountains and its variations. Scientia Sinica. 1979;22(8):958-75. https://www.sciengine.com/Math%20A0/doi/10.1360/ya1979-22-8-958
[34] Jilani R, Haq M, Naseer A. A study of Glaciers in Northern Pakistan. In The first joint PI symposium of ALOS data nodes for ALOS science program in Kyoto Secretariat, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAEA), Kyoto International Conference Centre, Main Hall 2007 (Vol. 30, No. 14, pp. 1571-1591). https://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/ALOS/conf/Proc_PIsymp2007/contents/proceedings/Land_Snow_and_Ice/LSI06.pdf
[35] Iqbal A, Nisar A, Mahmood S. Geospatial assessment of GLOF hazards in Hunza-Nagar, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. Advanced Remote Sensing. 2023 10;3(2):47-57. http://publish.mersin.edu.tr/index.php/arsej
[36] Patel A, Prajapati R, Dharpure JK, Mani S, Chauhan D. Mapping and monitoring of glacier areal changes using multispectral and elevation data: A case study over Chhota-Shigri glacier. Earth Science Informatics. 2019 ;12(4):489-99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-019-00388-x
[37] Rastner P, Prinz R, Notarnicola C, Nicholson L, Sailer R, Schwaizer G, Paul F. On the automated mapping of snow cover on glaciers and calculation of snow line altitudes from multi-temporal landsat data. Remote Sensing. 2019 14;11(12):1410.https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11121410
[38] Bolch T, Menounos B, Wheate R. Landsat-based inventory of glaciers in western Canada, 1985–2005. Remote sensing of Environment. 2010 15;114(1):127-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2009.08.015
[39] Larsen CF, Motyka RJ, Arendt AA, Echelmeyer KA, Geissler PE. Glacier changes in southeast Alaska and northwest British Columbia and contribution to sea level rise. Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface. 2007 ;112(F1). https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JF000586
[40] Rossini M, Di Mauro B, Garzonio R, Baccolo G, Cavallini G, Mattavelli M, De Amicis M, Colombo R. Rapid melting dynamics of an alpine glacier with repeated UAV photogrammetry. Geomorphology. 2018 1; 304:159-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.12.039
[41] Bajracharya SR, Maharjan SB, Shrestha F. The status and decadal change of glaciers in Bhutan from the 1980s to 2010 based on satellite data. Annals of Glaciology. 2014 ;55(66):159-66. https://doi.org/10.3189/2014AoG66A125
[42] Paul F, Huggel C, Kääb A. Combining satellite multispectral image data and a digital elevation model for mapping debris-covered glaciers. Remote sensing of Environment. 2004 29;89(4):510-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2003.11.007
[43] Paul F, Kääb A, Maisch M, Kellenberger T, Haeberli W. Rapid disintegration of Alpine glaciers observed with satellite data. Geophysical research letters. 2004 ;31(21). https ://doi.org/10.1029/2004G L0208 16
[44] Pelto MS. Mass balance of adjacent debris-covered and clean glacier ice in the North Cascades, Washington. Iahs Publication. 2000 :35-42.
[45] Li G, Lin H. Recent decadal glacier mass balances over the Western Nyainqentanglha Mountains and the increase in their melting contribution to Nam Co Lake measured by differential bistatic SAR interferometry. Global and Planetary Change. 2017 1; 149:177-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2016.12.018
[46] Bolch T, Kulkarni A, Kääb A, Huggel C, Paul F, Cogley JG, Frey H, Kargel JS, Fujita K, Scheel M, Bajracharya S. The state and fate of Himalayan glaciers. Science. 2012 20;336(6079):310-4. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1215828
[47] Qamar-uz-Zaman Chaudhry, Mahmood A, Rasul G, Afzaal M. Climate change indicators of Pakistan. Pakistan Meterorological Department; 2009. https://www.pmd.gov.pk/report_rnd.pdf
[48] Rasul G, Chaudhry QZ, Mahmood A, Hyder KW, Dahe Q. Glaciers and glacial lakes under changing climate in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Meteorology. 2011;8(15).
[49] Yao T, Thompson L, Yang W, Yu W, Gao Y, Guo X, Yang X, Duan K, Zhao H, Xu B, Pu J. Different glacier status with atmospheric circulations in Tibetan Plateau and surroundings. Nature climate change. 2012 ;2(9):663-7.http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nclimate1580.
[50] Tahir AA, Chevallier P, Arnaud Y, Ashraf M, Bhatti MT. Snow cover trend and hydrological characteristics of the Astore River basin (Western Himalayas) and its comparison to the Hunza basin (Karakoram region). Science of the total environment. 2015 1; 505:748-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.10.065
[51] Tahir AA, Adamowski JF, Chevallier P, Haq AU, Terzago S. Comparative assessment of spatiotemporal snow cover changes and hydrological behavior of the Gilgit, Astore and Hunza River basins (Hindukush–Karakoram–Himalaya region, Pakistan). Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics. 2016; 128:793-811. https://doi.10.1007/s00703-016-0440-6
[52] Afsar S, Abbas N, Jan B. Comparative study of temperature and rainfall fluctuation in Hunza-nagar District. Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences. 2013 5; 9:151-6. https://doi.org/10.6000/1927-5129.2013.09.21.
[53] Young NE. A survival guide to Landsat preprocessing (vol 98, pg 920, 2020). ECOLOGY. 2021 1;102(11). https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.1730
[54] Bhat AA, Dhondiram PD, Gupta SK, Kanga S, Singh SK, Meraj G, Kumar P, Sajan B. Snow Resources and Climatic Variability in Jammu and Kashmir, India. Climate. 2025;13(2):28. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13020028
[55] Zhao C, Kang S, Fan Y, Wang Y, He Z, Tan Z, Gao Y, Zhang T, He Y, Fan Y. Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Technology for Glaciology Research in the Third Pole. Drones. 2025 27;9(4):254. https://doi.org/10.3390/drones9040254
[56] Azam MF, Vincent C, Srivastava S, Berthier E, Wagnon P, Kaushik H, Hussain MA, Munda MK, Mandal A, Ramanathan A. Reanalysis of the longest mass balance series in Himalaya using a nonlinear model: Chhota Shigri Glacier (India). The Cryosphere. 2024 5;18(12):5653-72. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5653-2024
[57] Khadka N, Chen X, Sharma S, Shrestha B. Climate change and its impacts on glaciers and glacial lakes in Nepal Himalayas. Regional Environmental Change. 2023 ;23(4):143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-023-02142-y
[58] Gao H, Zou X, Wu J, Zhang Y, Deng X, Hussain S, Wazir MA, Zhu G. Post-20th century near-steady state of Batura Glacier: observational evidence of Karakoram Anomaly. Scientific reports. 2020 22;10(1):987. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-57660-0
[59] Biswas T, Subramanian S, Niyogi R, Mylliemngap W, Mitra S, Das DK, Sarkar MS. Conservation Challenges and Adaptation Strategies for Indian Himalayan Biodiversity in a Changing Climate. InClimate Change Impact on Himalayan Biodiversity 2025 18 (pp. 179-224). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-77149-1_8
[60] Kumar A, Swami B, Jain T, Aneaus S, Mullasseri S. Upper Alaknanda Basin: Glacier inventory and changes. Current Science (00113891). 2023 25;125(2). https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2022.87
[61] Chowdhury A, Sharma MC, Kumar De S, Debnath M. Glacier changes in the Chhombo Chhu Watershed of the Tista basin between 1975 and 2018, the Sikkim Himalaya, India. Earth System Science Data. 2021 17;13(6):2923-44. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-2923-2021
[62] Bernhardt M, Schulz K. SnowSlide: A simple routine for calculating gravitational snow transport. Geophysical Research Letters. 2010 ;37(11). https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL043086
[63] Maher AI, Treitz PM, Ferguson MA. Can Landsat data detect variations in snow cover within habitats of arctic ungulates? Wildlife Biology. 2012 ;18(1):75-87. https://doi.org/10.2981/11-055
[64] Warscher M, Marke T, Rottler E, Strasser U. Operational and experimental snow observation systems in the upper Rofental: data from 2017 to 2023. Earth System Science Data. 2024 12;16(8):3579-99. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-3579-2024
[65] Dozier J. Spectral signature of alpine snow cover from the Landsat Thematic Mapper. Remote sensing of environment. 1989 Apr 1; 28:9-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-4257(89)90101-6
[66] Hall DK, Riggs GA, Salomonson VV. Development of methods for mapping global snow cover using moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer data. Remote sensing of Environment. 1995 Nov 1;54(2):127-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-4257(95)00137-P
[67] Xiao X, Shen Z, Qin X. Assessing the potential of VEGETATION sensor data for mapping snow and ice cover: a Normalized Difference Snow and Ice Index. International Journal of Remote Sensing. 2001 1;22(13):2479-87. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160119766
[68] Kulkarni AV, Singh SK, Mathur P, Mishra VD. Algorithm to monitor snow cover using AWiFS data of RESOURCESAT‐1 for the Himalayan region. International Journal of Remote Sensing. 2006 1;27(12):2449-57. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160500497820
[69] Raghubanshi S, Agrawal R, Rathore BP. Enhanced snow cover mapping using object-based classification and normalized difference snow index (NDSI). Earth Science Informatics. 2023 ;16(3):2813-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-023-01077-6
[70] Bolch T, Kulkarni A, Kääb A, Huggel C, Paul F, Cogley JG, Frey H, Kargel JS, Fujita K, Scheel M, Bajracharya S. The state and fate of Himalayan glaciers. Science. 2012 20;336(6079):310-4. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1215828.
[71] Yao T, Thompson L, Yang W, Yu W, Gao Y, Guo X, Yang X, Duan K, Zhao H, Xu B, Pu J. Different glacier status with atmospheric circulations in Tibetan Plateau and surroundings. Nature climate change. 2012 ;2(9):663-7. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1580
[72] Ali M. Assessing climate-driven impacts on Karakoram glacier surge: A geospatial analysis highlighting Shishper Glacial Lake outburst flood events (2019–2022) as prime example. Heliyon. 2024 30;10(16). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35951
[73] Gao H, Zou X, Wu J, Zhang Y, Deng X, Hussain S, Wazir MA, Zhu G. Post-20th century near-steady state of Batura Glacier: observational evidence of Karakoram Anomaly. Scientific reports. 2020 22;10(1):987. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-57660-0
[74] Immerzeel WW, Van Beek LP, Bierkens MF. Climate change will affect the Asian water towers. science. 2010 11;328(5984):1382-5. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1183188
[75] Hewitt K. The Karakoram anomaly? Glacier expansion and the ‘elevation effect,'Karakoram Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development. 2005 1:332-40. https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2005)025[0332:TKAGEA]2.0.CO;2
[76] Bashir S. Assessing alpine ecosystem dynamics over the Great Himalayan Mountain Range, Kashmir: Earth observation and ecosystem modeling. Journal of the Geological Society of India. 2021 ;97(2):158-64. https://doi.org/doi: 10.1007/s12594-021-1647-9
[77] Ali S, Khan G, Hassan W, Qureshi JA, Bano I. Assessment of glacier status and its controlling parameters from 1990 to 2018 of Hunza Basin, Western Karakorum. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2021; 28:63178-90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15154-0
[78] Ashraf A, Naz R, Iqbal MB. Altitudinal dynamics of glacial lakes under changing climate in the Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and Himalaya ranges. Geomorphology. 2017 15; 283:72-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.01.033
[79] ICIMOD, Climate change and water security in the mountains of Pakistan. [cited 2024 May 15] Available from: https://www.icimod.org
[80] Shafique M, Faiz B, Bacha AS, Ullah S. Evaluating glacier dynamics using temporal remote sensing images: a case study of Hunza Valley, northern Pakistan. Environmental earth sciences. 2018; 77:1-1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7365-y
Downloads
Published
Data Availability Statement
Yes
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Abdur Raziq, Bhadar Khan, Tariq Sardar, Ayesha Ijaz, Abid Ullah, Ayad M. Fadhil Al Quraishi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Eurasian J. Sci. Eng is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (CC BY-4.0) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
